Hello everyone. This revised 1998 version of the FAQ has some additions and minor style changes to improve readability. There have been no complaints about loading time, so the single-file format remains unchanged. The new Usenet version is created by cutting and pasting the Web version directly, so the Web version is now the master file. Please send any additions or corrections to Steve, Thanks.

Contents:

    (1) Where to find this FAQ

A. Polymer Basics
    (2) What is a "Polymer"
    (3) Abbreviations for Common Polymers
    (4) Polymer Properties
    (5) Classification of Polymers
    (6) Processing methods for Polymers
    (7) Recycling of Polymers

B. Where to find Polymer Information on the Net
    (8) WWW sites

C. General Information
    (9) Calendar
    (10) Professional Organizations
    (11) University Degree Programs
    (12) Publications of Interest on Polymers
    (13) Commercial Polymer producers

D. References
    (14) Books on Polymers, Polymer Processing, Plastics Applications, and Plastics Design
    (15) Acknowledgements

a) The FAQ will be posted quarterly to the usenet newsgroup sci.polymers

b) The FAQ is archived at the following locations on the World Wide Web:

• http://www.irc.leeds.ac.uk/irc/spfaq/
  (European Mirror at University of Leeds, England)
• http://www.geocities.com/~spanoudi/poly-faq.html
  (The Other Pages, Maintained by Steve Spanoudis)
• http://www.polymers.com/poly-faq.html
  (Polymers Dot Com, Maintained by Greg Koski)

The word Polymer comes from the Greek "poly" meaning many, and "meros", parts or units. A polymer is a group of many units. You combine many "monomers" (individual units) to create a polymer.

Polymer is often used as a synonym for "plastic", but many biological and inorganic molecules are also polymeric. All plastics are polymers, but not all polymers are plastics. Plastic more commonly refers to the way a material behaves under applied forces, or behaves when it melts and flows.

Commercial polymers are formed through chemical reactions in large vessels under heat and pressure. Other ingredients are added to control how the polymer is formed and to produce the proper molecular length and desired properties. This chemical process is called "polymerization".

A "homopolymer" results from polymerizing only one kind of monomer. A "copolymer" results from using different monomers. Homopolymers have the same repeating unit while copolymers (which can be random, block, or graft) can vary have different numbers of repeating units. A "terpolymer" results from using three different monomers.

Polymers are commonly refered to by both their names and abbreviations. Commercial polymers are also frequently refered to by the trade names of their manufacturer. Here are some abbreviations for common polymers:

ABS - acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymer

BMC - thermoset polyester bulk molding compound

LCP - liquid crystal polymer

PA - polyamide, commonly called nylon

PAN - polyacrylonitrile

PAS - polyarylsulfone

PBT - polybuylene terephthalate

PC - polycarbonate

PE - polyethylene

• HDPE - high density PE
• LDPE - low density PE
• LLDPE - linear low density PE
• VLDPE - very low density PE
• HMW-HDPE - high molecular weight HDPE
• UHMWPE - ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene

PEEK - polyetheretherketone

PEK - polyetherketone

PEI - polyetherimide

PES - polyethersulfone

PET - polyethylene terephthalate

PET-G - glycol modified PET

PI - polyimide

PK - polyketone

PMMA - polymethyl methacrylate, commonly called acrylic

PMP - polymethylpentene

POM - polyoxymethylene, commonly called acetal

PP - polypropylene, subdivided as:

• homopolymer
• random, impact and block copolymers

PPA - polyphthalamide

PPO/PPE - polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene ether

PPS - polyphenylene sulfide

PS - polystyrene

• EPS - expanded polystyrene
• HIPS - high impact polystyrene

PSO,PSU - polysulfone

PTFE - polytetrefluoroethylene

PU,PUR - polyurethane

PVC - polyvinylchloride, commonly refered to as vinyl

RUBBER

• EPR - ethylene propylene rubber
• SBR - styrene butadiene rubber
• EPDM - ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber

SAN - styrene acrylonitrile copolymer

SI - silicone

SMC - thermoset polyester sheet molding compound

TPE - thermoplastic elastomer

• TPO - thermoplastic olefin
• TPU - thermoplastic urethane

UF - urea formaldehyde

http://www.geocities.com/~spanoudi/abbrev.html has a more extensive list of polymer abbreviations

http://www.geocities.com/~spanoudi/tradname.html has a list of polymer tradenames

Polymers are characterized in many ways - by chemical or physical structure, by strength or thermal performance, by optical or electrical properties, etc.

Most textbooks will give qualitative and some quantitative data on polymer properties. Properties can vary widely however, between manufacturers, for different performance grades, due to the presence of additives and reinforcements, or other reasons. For more precise data, contact a representative from a polymer producer, compounder, or distributor for a spec sheet on a particular material and grade. Often grades are offered to suit the needs of specific types of applications.

Properties of interest typically include:

Physical Properties

• Specific Gravity
• Mold Shrinkage (in flow, cross-flow, and thickness directions)

• Strength (Tensile and Flexural)
• Modulus (Tensile and Flexural)
• Elongation
• Hardness
• Impact Resistance

• Heat Deflection Temperature
• VICAT Softening Temperature
• Glass Transition Temp
• Heat Capacity
• Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal Expansion Coefficient

• Melt Flow Index
• Melt Strength
• Melting Point, No-flow Temp
• Shear Rate/Viscosity Relation
• Compressibility (Pressure/Volume/Temperature Relation)

• Light Transmission
• Haze
• Refractive Index

• Surface and Volume Resistivity
• Dielectric Constant
• Dielectric Strength
• Dissipation Factor
• Breakdown Voltage

• Chemical Resistance
• UV Resistance
• Flame Resistance (UL Rating)
• Oxygen Index
• Water Absorption

• Crystallinity
• Orientation
• Composition (Neat, Blended, Filled)

There are many ways in which polymer properties or behavior are classified to make general descriptions and understanding easier. Some common classificatons are:

Thermoplastic vs. Thermoset Polymers

"Thermoplastics" anre materials which can be heated and formed, then re-heated and re-formed repeatedly. The shape of the polymer molecules is generally linear, or slightly branched, allowing them to flow under pressure when heated above the effective melting point.

"Thermoset" materials undergo a chemical as well as a phase change when they are heated. Their molecules form a three-dimensional cross-linked network. Once they are heated and formed they can not be reprocessed - the three-dimensional molecules can not be made to flow under pressure when heated.

Amorphous vs Crystalline Polymers

Polymers with nearly linear structure, which have simple backbones, tend to be flexible and fold up to form very tightly packed and ordered "crystalline" areas. Levels of crystallinity can vary from zero to near 100%. Time and temperature during processing influence the degree of crystallinity. Crystalline polymers include: polyethylene, polypropylene, acetals, nylons, and most thermoplastic polyesters. Crystalline polymers have higher shrinkage, are generally opaque or translucent, with good to excellent chemical resistance, low surface friction, and good to excellent wear resistance.

Polymers with bulkier molecular chains or large branches or functional groups tend to be stiffer and will not fold up tight enough to form crystals. These materials are referred to as "amorphous" polymers. Common amorphous polymers include polystyrene, polycarbonate, acrylic, ABS, SAN, and polysulfone. Amorphous polymers have low shrinkage, good transparency, gradual softening when heated (no distinct melting point), average to poor chemical resistance, high surface friction, and average to low wear resistance.

Addition vs. Condensation Polymers

Polymers such as nylons, acetals, and polyesters are made by condensation or step-reaction polymerization, where small molecules (monomers) of two different chemicals combine to form chains of alternating chemical groups. The length of molecules is determined by the number of active chain ends available to react with more monomer or the active ends of other molecules.

Polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, acrylic, and polyvinyl chloride are made by addition or chain-reaction polymerization where only one monomer species is used. The reaction is begun by an initiator which activates monomer molecules by the breaking a double bond between atoms and creating two bonding sites. These sites quickly react with sites on other monomer or polymer molecules. The process continues until the initiator is used up and the reaction stops. The length of molecules is determined by the number of monomer molecules which can attach to a chain before the initiator is consumed and all molecules with initated bonding sites have reacted.

Commodity, Engineering, and Performance Polymers

Commodity polymers have relatively low physical properties. They are used for inexpensive or disposable consumer or industrial products or packaging. They have limited stress and low temperature resistance, but are well suited to high volume production. Polyethylene, polystyrene, and polypropylene are good examples. In recent years, material suppliers have achieved improved strength and thermal properties from some commodity materials, displacing low-end applications for engineering polymers.

Engineering polymers have higher strength and thermal resistance. Their price may range from two to ten times as much as a commodity polymer. They are used in enclosures, structural frames and and load bearing members, and applications requiring wear resistance, long life expectency, flame resistance, and the ability to endure cyclic stress loading. Good examples are polyesters, polycarbonates, ABS, and acetal.

Performance polymers are at the highest end of the spectrum, with very high strength and thermal resistance. They tend to be very expensive, priced two to five times above most engineering polymers. They are used in high temperature, high stress applications, in harsh environments, and in generally low to medium volume production. Examples include PEEK, polyetherimides, and LCP's.

There are many processing methods for polymers. Commercial processing equipment can range from a few thousand dollars to many millions of dollars. In addition to the equipment itself, tooling is generally required to make a particular shape. Most processes involve melting or softening the material and then forcing it into the desired shape. Other processes force a monomer or pre-polymer mixture into the right shape, then polymerize it in-place.

Molding

Compression Molding

Transfer Molding

Injection Molding

• Gas Assisted Injection Molding (GAIN)
• Reaction Injection Molding (RIM/SRIM)
• Injection/Compression Molding
• Structural Web Molding

Blow Molding

• Extrusion Blow Molding
• Injection Blow Molding
• Injection Stretch Blow Molding

Rotational Molding

Extrusion

Rod, Pipe, Sheet, Profile Extrusion

Coextrusion

Extruded/Blown Film

Extruded/Blown Foam

Pultrusion

Casting

Cast Film

Cast Shape

Vacuum Casting

Forming

Vacuforming

Thermoforming

Pressure Forming

Calendering

Roller Mill

Web Processing

Coating

Powder Coating

Dispersion Coating

Extrusion Coating and Laminating

Spray Coating

Dip Coating

Spinning

Lay-up

Filament Winding

Melt Blown Fiber

Many processing methods have their own Special Interest Group as a subdivision of the SPE.

(A good textbook for understanding different processing methods is the Plastic Engineering Handbook by SPI, Michael L. Berrins, Ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, pub, c 1991, 845p.) ISBN 0-442-31799-9, LCCCN 90-22784)

Most thermoplastic polymers can be recycled - that is converted from their initial use as a consumer, business, or industrial product, back into a raw material from which some other product can be manufactured. Recycled materials are often classified as Post-Industrial and Post-Consumer.

Post-Industrial includes such things as manufacturing scrap, containers and industrial packaging. Post-Consumer is basically any product, container, packaging, etc. that has passed through the hands of a consumer, e.g. plastics bags, beverage containers, carpeting, home appliances, toys, etc.

Thermoset polymers can only be recycled for use as an inert filler (something to take up space) in another material.

The keys to effective recycling are:

1. an efficient infrastructure for collecting used materials
2. ease of separation and low levels of contamination
3. an established market for reprocessing/reusing the materials

There are many arguments whether there is not enough of a market for recycled materials to create the proper recycling infrastructure, or not a consistent supply of recycled material to encourage the growth of a market. In the case of the US paper industry, decreasing availability of virgin wood pulp rapidly created a profitable market for recycled paper.

The contamination issue is very important for plastics. While oil, grease, paper labels, glue, etc. will burn off when glass or metals are recycled, they become contaminants and degrade thermoplastics during reprocessing.

There are several versions of the recycling logo. The original one was three arrows chasing each other in the shape of a triangle, the second was just a triangle, and the current one is a pair of angle brackets.

< 1 >

SYMBOL              MATERIAL

  1             PET (polyethylene terphthalate)
                - beverage containers (2-liter soda bottles), boil-in
                   food pouches, processed meat packages, etc.

  2             HDPE (high density polyethylene)
                - milk bottles, detergent bottles, oil bottles, toys,
                   plastic bags

  3             PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
                - food wrap, vegetable oil bottles, blister packaging

  4             LDPE (low density polyethylene)
                - shrink-wrap, plastic bags, garment bags

  5             PP (polypropylene)
                - margarine and yogurt containers, grocery bags,
                caps for containers, carpet fiber, food wrap,

  6             PS (polystyrene)
                - plastic utensils, clothes hangars, foam cups and plates

  7             Other (all other polymers and polymer blends) including
                polycarbonate, ABS, PPO/PPE

(make shure you use upper and lower case letters as shown below - most web sites run under UNIX or Windows NT based operating systems and are case sensitive)

http://www.asresin.com/

Allied Signal Plastics

http://www.PlasticsResource.com/

American Plastics Council - Plastics / Environment Page

http://cps-www.bu.edu/

Boston University Center for Polymer Studies

http://www.polymer-age.co.uk/

British Plastics & Rubber

http://k2.scl.cwru.edu/cse/emac/

Case Western Reserve University - Polymer Science

http://www.cmold.com/

C-Mold (formerly A.C. Technologies)

http://xenoy.mae.cornell.edu/

Cornell University Injection Molding Program

http://www.cpt.stm.tudelft.nl/index.html

Delft University Materials Science

http://www.dow.com/cgi-bin/frameup.cgi?/plastics

Dow Plastics

http://www.eastman.com/ppbo/

Eastman Performance Plastics Home Page

http://www.ferro.com/

Ferro Corporation

http://www.ge.com/plastics/index.htm

General Electric Plastics Home Page

http://www.ashchem.com/DivisionPages/DIV3.html

General Polymers

http://www.idesinc.com/

IDES Materials Database

http://www.industrylink.com/cgi-bin/auto_01.asp?Industry=plas

Industrylink - Plastics and Polymers page

http://www.plasticsnet.com/live/imm/index.cfm

Injection Molding Magazine Online

http://www.mahanna.com/

M.A. Hanna Company

http://www.matweb.com/

Matweb - Materials Database

http://www.moldflow.com/

Moldflow Home Page

http://www.worldserver.pipex.com/moldflow/usergroup/na_mfug.html

North American Moldflow Users Group home page

http://eetsg22.bd.psu.edu

Penn State University - Erie

http://www.plasticsnet.com/

The Plastics Network

http://www.plasticsnews.com

Plastics News Magazine

http://www.lexmark.com/ptc/ptc.html

Plastics Technology Center / Lexmark Electronics

http://www.polymers.com/

Polymers Dot Com - Online Magazine and Polylinks

http://www.polymerland.com/

Polymerland

http://www.polysort.com/

Polysort Network

http://www.rtpcompany.com/

RTP Company

http://www.sme.org/

Society of Manufacturing Engineers

http://www.4spe.org/

Society of Plastics Engineers (slow web site)

http://www.idesinc.com/pd3/

SPE Product Design and Development Division PD3 Home Page at IDES

www.thomasregister.com

Thomas Register online

http://www.umr.edu/~wlf/

University of Missouri at Rolla - Polymer Chemistry Page

http://www.psrc.usm.edu/index.html

The University of Southern Mississippi, Department of Polymer Science

Major events in the Polymer/Plastics Industry:

ANTEC - Annual Technical Conference of the SPE

Held in May each year

RETEC - Regional Technical Conference

Frequently held throughout the year in different locations; generally focused on a special interest topic

K-Show - Kunststoffe und Kautschuk - the largest plastics trade show and conference in the world

Held in October/November every three years in Dusseldorf, Germany; Next show is in 1998, contact 312-781-5180 for more information

NPE -National Plastics Exposition - the largest US plastics trade show and conference, sponsored by SPI

Held in June every three years in Chicago; Next show is in 2000

Plastics USA - Interim Show sponsored by SPI

Held in September in Chicago in the years between NPE shows

NDES -National Design Engineering Show, sponsored by NAM

Held annually in Chicago in March during National manufacturing Week

SPE - Society of Plastics Engineers

14 Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT 06804

Phone 203-775-0471 Fax 203-775-8490

SPI - Society of the Plastics Industry

1275 K Street NW, Suite 400

Washington D.C. 20005

Phone 202-371-5200 Fax 202-371-1022

ACS - American Chemical Society

Division of Polymer Chemistry or

Division of Polymer Materials Science and Engineering

APC - American Plastics Council

1275 K Street NW

Washington, DC 20005

Phone 1-800-243-5790

BPF - British Plastics Federation

6 Bath Place, Rivington Street

LONDON EC2A 3JE, England

Phone 00 44 +171 457 5000

Fax 00 44 +171 457 5045

email: bpf@dial.pipex.com

PINZ - Plastics Institute of New Zealand

P.O.Box 76378, Manakau City, Auckland, New Zealand.

Phone +64 9 262 3773

CANZ - Composites Association of New Zealand

5 Balmacewen Road, Dunedin, New Zealand.

Phone +64 3 467 2514.

PIA - Plastics Industry Association [Australia]

41-43 Exhibition Street, Melbourne Vic 3000 AUSTRALIA

Phone +61-3-654-2199 Fax +61-3-654-2384

Undergraduate Programs:

• Case Western Reserve University
• UMass at Lowell
• U of Southern Mississippi
• Virginia Polytech

Graduate Programs:

University of Akron

Akron, OH 44325-0001

Department of Polymer Engineering

Dr. James White, Department Head

Case Western Reserve University

10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106

Department of Molecular Science

Dr. John Blackwell, Department Chair, Phone 216-368-4450

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, GA 30332

School of Chemical Engineering

Dr. A.S.Abhiraman, Program in Polymers Coordinator

LeHigh University

111 Research Dr, Bethlehem, PA 18015

Center for Polymer Science and Engineering

Dr. Mohamed S. El-Aaser, Director

University of Massachusettes at Amherst

Amgerst, MA 01003

Department of Polymer Science

University of Massachusettes at Lowell

1 University Avenue, Lowell, MA 01854

Department of Plastics Engineering

Dr. Rudolph Deanin 508-934-3420 Graduate Coordinator for M.S.

Dr. Ross Stacer 508-924-2420 for PhD

Dr. Robert Nunn 508-934-3420 (chair) for Undergrad

Prof. Stephen Driscoll 508-934-3420 for night school Undergrad

Dr. Stanley Israel 508-934-3650 (chair) for Joing PhD in
Polymer Science/Plastics Engineering

McGill University / Institut Francais du Petrole

Montreal, Quebec, Canada / Paris France

Collaborative Graduate Program

Advanced Technology in Petrochemicals, Polymers, and Plastics

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, MI 48109

Macromolecular Science and Engineering Program

Dr. Frank Filisko, Graduate Committee Chair

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, NC 27695-7905

Department of Chemical Engineering

Department Head: Ruben Carbonell

Graduate Coordinator: Carol Hall

contact: Chris McDowell, (919)515-4701

e-mail: mcdowell@che.ncsu.edu

Polytechnic University of Brooklyn

Six Metrotech Center, Brooklyn, New York 11201

Prof Eli Pearce or Allan S. Myerson, Phone 718-260-3620

E-mail amyerson@robling.poly.edeu

San Jose State University

San Jose, CA 95192

Department of Chemistry

Dr. Gerald Selter, Graduate Advisor

Univ. of Southern Mississippi

Hattiesburg, MS 39406

Department of Polymer Science, College of Science & Technology

Dr. Robert Lochhead, Department Head, Phone 601-266-4868

University of Tennessee

Knoxville, TN 37996

Departmen of Materials Science & Engineering

Dr. J.E. Spruiell, Department Head

Virginia Polytechnic and State University (also VPI or Virginia Tech)

Blacksburg, VA 24061

Dr. Garth Wilkes, Chairman, 120 Patton Hall

All publications are monthly unless noted otherwise.

British Plastics & Rubber (MCM Publishing Ltd)

37 Nelson Road, Caterham, Surrey CR3 5PP England

Phone +44 1883 347059 Fax +44 1883 341350

Injection Molding Magazine(Abbey Communications)

3400 East Bayaud Avenue, Suite 230, Denver, CO 80209

Phone 303-321-2322 Fax 303-321-3552

Editorial Contact Online I.D.: immck@aol.com or immmm@aol.com

ISSN 1071-362X

Journal of Polymer Science - Polymer Physics Edition (John Wiley & Sons)

Journal of Polymer Science - Polymer Chemistry Edition (John Wiley & Sons)

Makromoleculare Chemie

Macromolecules(ACS Journal)

Modern Plastics(McGraw-Hill)

1221 6th Avenue, New York, NY 10020

Phone 212-512-6242 Fax 212-512-6111

Editorial Comment Online I.D.: modplas@ios.com

Modern Plastics International(McGraw-Hill)

Plastics Compounding(Advanstar)

(no longer being published ? May return)

Plastics Engineering(SPE Publication)

14 Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT 06804-0403

Phone 203-775-0471 Fax 203-775-8490

ISSN 0091-9578

(Note: Regional SPE Chapters and SPE Special Interest Divisions tend to have quarterly publications of their own)

Plastics News(Crain Communications)

1725 Merriman Road, Akron, OH 44313-5251

Phone 216-836-9180 Fax 216-836-2322

ISSN 1042-802X

Plastics Technology(Bill Communications)

355 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10010

Phone 212-592-6570 Fax 212-592-6579

Editorial Comment Phone: 212-592-6573

ISSN 0032-1257

Plastics World (PTN Publishing)

Phone 516-845-2700 Fax 516-845-7109

445 Broad Hollow Road, Melville NY 11747

ISSN 0032-1273

Polymer (a research Journal)

Polymer Composites (SPE Publication)

Polymer Engineering and Science (SPE Publication)

Polymer Processing and Rheology (SPE Publication)

Appliance (Dana Chase)

1110 Jorie Boulevard, CS 9019, Oak Brook, IL 60522-9019

Phone 708-990-3484 Fax 708-990-0078

Editorial I.D.: scot@appliance.com or tim@appliance.com

ISSN 0003-6781

Design News(Cahners)

275 Washington Strees, Newton, MA 02158

Phone 617-964-3030 Fax 617-558-4402

Editorial Comment Online I.D.: DN@cahners

Machine Design(Penton Publishing)

1100 Superior Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44114-2543

Phone 216-696-7000 Fax 216-621-8469

ISSN 0024-9114

Due to the size of this listing, it is maintained as a separate appendix listing companies by name with telephone contact numbers: Appendix A.

This is a very brief sampling of some texts on polymer science, processing, properties and applications. SPE, McGraw Hill, Van Nostrand Reinhold, and John Wiley and Sons all have catalogs of available books on these subjects).

1. Plastic Engineering Handbook of the Society of the Plastics Industry, Michael L. Berrins, Ed. (Van Nostran Reinhold, pub, c 1991, 845p.) ISBN 0-442-31799-9, LCCCN 90-22784

2. Polymeric Materials and Processing, Jean-Michael Charrier, (SPE, pub, c 1990, 650p.) ISBN 0-19-520854-4

3. Plastics: How Structure Determines Properties, Geza Gruenwald (SPE , pub, c 1992, 352p.) ISBM 3-446-16520-7

4. Principals of Polymer Systems, Rodriguez (McGraw Hill, pub)

5. Fundamental Principles of Polymer Materials, Rosen (John Wiley and Sons, pub) ISBN 0-471-08704-1

6. Plastic Part Design for Injection Molding - An Introduction, Robert A. Malloy (SPE, pub, c. 1994, 460p.) ISBN 1-56990-129-5

7. Designing with Plastics and Composites, a Handbook, D.V. Rosato and D.P. DiMattia (SPE, pub, c. 1991, 977p.) ISBN 0-442-00133-9

8. Plastics Polymer Science and Technology, Mahendra D. Baijal, Ed. (John Wiley & Sons, pub, c. 1982, 945p.) ISBN 0-471-04044-4

9. A catalog with many good text on various polymer/plastics subjects is available from SPE, in the US: Phone 203-775-0471 (Brookfield, CT), in Europe: Phone 32-0-2-774-9630 (Brussels, Belgium)

Jim Coffey, Dr. Ulrich Seitz, Ramesh Lakshmi Narayan, David O Hunt, Jeff Vavasour, George D Ryerson, Abe Verghis, Dave Ingram, Mike Greenfield, Sami Mohammed, Paul D. Whaley, Tom Brady, Bob Hutchins, Ed Stokes, Larry Dodd, Mike Stewart, Russell Schulz, David Bick, Tony Foiani, Mike Pollard, Steve Baxter, Tony Tweedale, Kevin Patterson, Thomas Pierce, Stephen DeFosse, Marc Lavine, Jim Ure, Bernhard Wessling, B. L. Dowler, Bernie Doeser, Kevin Byrne, Thomas Guery, Darren Schilberg, Pete Logan, Eric Amis